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Careers in General Physics
Unlike the general physics jobs from generations past, careers in physics, today, usually require the selection of a particular subfield of physics as a specialty. When the subfields were just being discovered, physicists would work in many different areas and you could argue that they had careers in general physics. Albert Einstein (1879–1955), for example, made a career of general physics study by working on problems in special and general relativity, solid-state physics, cosmology, statistical mechanics, Brownian motion, atomic spectra, and unified field theories. You could also classify Lev Landau (1908–1968) as having held a job in general physics because he worked on problems in quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, solid-state physics, diamagnetism, superfluidity, plasma physics, and superconductivity.
Today, physicists seeking careers in general physics need to have a strong understanding of the various branches of physics: classical mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, relativity, and quantum mechanics. Undergraduate course work might lead to an entry-level general physics job that touches upon all of these branches, with the exception of relativity. In a graduate school that grants doctorates in physics, special relativity is part of a course in quantum electrodynamics, which is a subfield of quantum mechanics. A graduate school might offer a course in general relativity taught by someone with an understanding of this area. Of course, there are many career opportunities in general physics at colleges and universities.
There are no journals with the titles Careers in General Physics or General Physics Jobs because these are not specific areas of research. However, Physical Review A, published by the American Institute of Physics, and the Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical, published by the Institute of Physics, cover one of the main research areas in physics, spelled out in the second journal’s title and abbreviated AMO. The other areas of research in physics are condensed-matter physics, particle physics, astrophysics, geophysics, and biophysics.
A career in AMO means studying matter-matter and light-matter interaction on the scale of one or a few atoms. A job in condensed-matter means being a solid-state physicist. Particle physics is also called “high energy” physics because particle accelerators are used to create interactions at high energies. Astrophysics includes astronomy and cosmology. A job in geophysics means being an earth scientist. Many physicists develop careers in medical physics by working in radiation and radiology departments of hospitals. This might be considered an example of a job in biophysics.
Careers in Applied Physics
Applied physics is the application of the science of physics to helping human beings and solving their problems. It differs from engineering because engineers solve well-defined problems. Applied physicists use physics or conduct physics research to develop new technologies or solve engineering problems.
For example, medical physicists in radiation therapy departments of hospitals measure and calculate the radiation doses given to cancer patients. Research on improving dosimetry for the treatment plans of cancer patients is considered an applied physics job.
Caltech, Stanford, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and the University of Maryland all have departments dedicated to the subject. The applied physics career opportunies at these institutes of higher education and each generally indicates the particular area of physics that is being applied. Universities, private laboratories, and government laboratories do research in the areas where there is the most interest and activity and applied physics jobs are plentiful as a result. Fiber optics, astrophysics, vacuum tunneling, nondestructive testing, acoustics, semiconductors, laser and quantum optics, and condensed matter are booming fields at present. These areas of study are often integrated with allied disciplines such as electrical engineering, engineering material science, inorganic and organic chemistry, and biology.
All of these areas of research represent potential careers in applied physics in a number of smaller fields. Condensed-matter physics, for example, includes the study of crystalline solids, liquids, supercooled liquids like glass, amorphous materials like ceramics, and polymer compounds. The study of such materials has made possible revolutionary breakthroughs in a number of engineering fields, such as transistors, semiconductor-based lasers, and fiber-optic communication devices. To give another example, the study of nondestructive testing of engineering materials has made it possible for engineers to test heavy engineering structures without having to cause any damage or loss. Polymer technology has made possible ultra-light, bullet-proof uniforms for soldiers in action and lightweight aircraft parts.
Careers in Astronomy & Astrophysics
The two terms are generally linked when naming scientific journals covering the subject and graduate science departments because most professional astronomers have graduate degrees in physics. As a result we include astronomy jobs and astrophysics jobs in one category. The discovery that the universe is expanding was an astronomical advance, that piqued interest in astronomy and astrophysics careers worldwide. The theoretical equation relating the speed of a star with its redshift is an achievement atributed to career astrophysicists. Likewise, radio astronomy was responsible for the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), but astrophysics showed the connection between CMBR and the Big Bang. In 1000 BC, using visible light, Chinese astronomers measured the difference between the location of the sun on the shortest day and the longest day to measure the tilt of Earth’s rotational axis. So the overlap of careers in astronomy and astrophysics is quite prevalent. In addition to all of the electromagnetic spectrum, career astronomers now use neutrinos from the Sun and supernovae with detectors placed underground. There are also interferometers that respond to gravitational radiation instead of light, with arms that are 4 km long, to detect the gravity waves of general relativity.
There are a great many amateur astronomers and societies. A common activity is called star hopping, which involves locating faint stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects with the help of star charts and bright stars. Amateur astronomers often contribute to the lifework of career astronomers by monitoring the changes in brightness of variable stars, tracking asteroids, discovering comets, and observing occultations.
Dark matter and dark energy are hypothetical concepts whose existence is indicated by recent discoveries. Matters of current interest to career astrophysicists are the dynamics of stellar evolution, galaxy formation, black holes, and the origin of cosmic rays. Until very recently, the largest structures were thought to be superclusters of galaxies, which are bigger than clusters of galaxies. Now, there are voids, filaments and walls of galaxies, and gaseous structures 400,000 light years across. With all these new and exciting discoveries, its no wonder we have an abundance of astronomy jobs and astrophysics jobs listed on our boards.
Careers in Atomic & Molecular Physics (+ Optical Physics)
Careers in atomic physics were responsible for the advent of quantum mechanics. Atomic physics is easier to define than molecular physics since it concerns only isolated atoms and ions, electron configurations, and the excitation of electrons by photons or collisions. The property of the nucleus is relevant in atomic physics only when considering hyperfine coupling. Atomic physics jobs are the foundation of plasma physics and atmospheric physics. Careers in atomic physics are dedicated to the study of matter–matter and light–matter on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. This broader field is called AMO physics or atomic, molecular, and optical physics.
Molecular physics jobs are usually dedicated to the study of molecules—electrons, nuclei, and chemical bonding—made up of a few atoms in the gas phase. Various types of spectroscopy (electromagnetic, electron, mass, etc.) are the most important experimental methods in this field so you will find that careers in molecular physics often incorporate this type of work. Molecular physics jobs overlap with quantum chemistry, physical chemistry, and chemical physics. Quantum chemistry is the use of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory in chemistry. Physical chemistry is the application of thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and kinetics to phenomena in chemical systems. Chemical physics investigates chemistry using the techniques of scientists working in atomic physics, molecular physics, and condensed-matter physics. Whereas chemical physics studies chemistry from the point of view of physics, physical chemistry studies the physical nature of chemistry.
Optical physics is the study of the generation of electromagnetic radiation and its interaction with matter. Since the devices of optical engineering (lenses, optical sensors, lasers, fiber optic communication systems, etc.) are used for research in optical physics, there is no hard and fast distinction between optical physics, optics, and optical engineering.
Careers in Biophysics
The first career in biophysics began when Conrad Roentgen discovered that X-rays could be used to treat cancer and it became necessary to measure how much energy human tissue absorbs when exposed to various kinds of radiation. There are now many medical physicists who help physicians at hospitals diagnose and treat various diseases. In addition to human beings, biophysics jobs incorporate the study of all levels of biological organization, from molecules to ecosystems. Careers in molecular biophysics approach questions in biochemistry and molecular biology quantitatively by using fluorescent imaging, electron microscopy, X-ray crystallography, and spectroscopy based on nuclear magnetic resonance and quantum tunneling. Molecular biology, of course, is concerned with important molecules like enzymes, DNA, and proteins. The structure of DNA was determined by X-ray crystallography. Molecular biophysics jobs often overlap with nanotechnology, which involves manipulating materials one atom or one molecule at a time.
Biophysics careers also overlap with systems biology and bioengineering. Bioengineering applies engineering principles to biology and medicine, an example being designing prosthetics. Systems biology is the study of organ systems (biology systems) with an integrationist rather than a reductionist approach. The scientific method usually is associated with identifying the components of interactions and showing how complex systems can be reduced to simple systems. However, in biophysics work an attempt is made to understand the complexity of biological systems by observing multiple components simultaneously and integrating the observations with mathematical models and an understanding of statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, and chemical kinetics.
Career biophysicists discovered the self-generating wave of electrochemical activity that allows nerve cells to propagate information over distances (action potential). The nerve cells of squids were used because the nerve axons are 1000 times wider than in humans, making it easier to insert electrodes. It was discovered that the action potential was caused by changes in the permeability of the cell membrane to sodium and potassium.
Careers in Computational Physics
Mathematical computations are an essential component of modern research in particle physics, condensed-matter physics, astrophysics, fluid mechanics, quantum field theory, quantum chromodynamics, and plasma physics. Computational physics jobs involve calculations and formulas. To give another example, in solid-state physics functionals (functions of another function) are used to investigate many-body systems (atoms, molecules, and condensed phases). One can also think of computational physics jobs as work in solving differential equations, calculating integrals, performing Monte Carlo calculations on a computer, solving matrix eigenvalue problems, etc. Computational physics careers appear to be part of theoretical physics, but some consider it to be a separate discipline. Mathematical physics is different from computational physics because computational physics relies on a quantitative theory that already exits. The Journal of Mathematical Physics defines its subject matter as the "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories."
The Office of Science of the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) supports over 40 percent of the basic research in physical sciences in the United States and operates 10 major laboratories, such as the Argonne National Laboratory, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, and SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. Its Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) program promotes careers in computational physics and the use of tools to analyze, model, simulate, and predict complex phenomena important to the DOE. In 2001, it began the Scientific Discovery through Advanced Computing (SciDAC) program that supports many computational physics jobs. The program is focused on advancing scientific discovery using supercomputers performing trillions of calculations per second (tera-scale). SciDAC projects are aimed at “developing future energy sources, studying global climate change, accelerating research in designing new materials, improving environmental cleanup methods, and understanding physics from the tiniest particles to massive supernovae explosions.” SciDAC publishes a journal and has established SciDAC Institutes at four major universities with a total of 13 universities participating in the partnership.
Careers in Computer Science
Careers in engineering involve the creative application of scientific principles to solving human problems. Electrical engineering began with Allesandro Volta's and Michael Faraday's discoveries and mechanical engineering began with James Watt's invention. A job in computer science is an engineering job and such careers started in the early 1940s when the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was built for the U. S. Army. Computer science began with the work of Alan Turing, Kurt Gödel, and John von Neumann on algorithm theory (step-by-step procedures for solving a problem) and mathematical logic. Jobs in information technology focus attention on processing and transmitting information and only involve computer science because computers are used. A career in computer science, as opposed to a career in information technology, means understanding information processing and transformation.
A computer science engineer decides on the best types of programming languages, algorithms, and data structures (lists, arrays, records, stacks, queues, and trees) to use for a particular application. A career in computer science as a software engineer requires developing accurate and robust computer programs. A computer's memory limitation is one of many factors a computer science engineer needs to consider. Jobs in computer science include making operating systems, which control the overall functioning of a computer, easier to use and more efficient.
A computer science career can focus on computer architecture, which is the design and analysis of new computer systems. Computer science jobs in this area involve improving computers by increasing their speed, storage capacity, and reliability. Software and hardware models are developed that will ultimately result in new computers. Computer science careers in this sub-field often focus on particular tasks, such as image and signal processing or controlling mechanical systems (robotics).
Computer science jobs frequently involve research in artificial intelligence, which attempts to mimic human intelligence to improve our understanding of human learning, inference, cognition, and problem solving.
There are also many computer science careers available in robotics, which is the design and development of computer controlled mechanical devices. Such devices range from toys to completely automated factory assembly lines. Increasing the dexterity and adaptability of robots is a research area closely aligned with artificial intelligence.
Careers in computer science can also focus on research of the interface between humans and computers. Designing a better keyboard for handicapped individuals is an example of a job in computer science that focuses on the human-computer interface. Since there are many different computer applications and many different kinds of users, the development of input and output devices provides many computer science career opportunities. Other jobs in computer science are related to computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, and numerical and symbolic computation.
Careers in Condensed Matter Physics
Before 1978, when the American Physical Society changed the terminology, a career in condensed matter physics meant having a job in solid-state physics. The new field now includes the study of liquids, but not how fluids move and the forces acting on them, which is covered by fluid mechanics. One-third of the physicists in the United States have jobs in condensed-matter physics.
Condensed matter physics jobs include the study of Bose-Einstein condensate, a phenomenon predicted by the famous developers of Bose-Einstein statistics 70 years before physicists with jobs at JILA (a research institute operated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado) discovered it. This new state of matter emerged when the temperature of rubidium gas was cooled to 1.7 x 10-7 K. At this low temperature, the momentum of the atoms became more known and their location less known to the extent of forming a single quantum state.
Many jobs in condensed matter physics involve the study of superconductors, which have zero resistivity and other technologically useful properties. It is a quantum mechanical phenomenon thought until 1986 to occur at temperatures near 0 K, but certain ceramics make the transition at 90 K. Superconductors can produce the stable magnetic fields required by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a multi-billion dollar business. There are condensed matter physics career opportunities in this subfield which is related to magnetic levitation for transportation, digital circuits, power cables, and electronic filters that operate in the frequency range used by broadcast radio, cell phones, and television.
Many jobs in solid-state physics involve research on semiconductors and transistors and require using X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction to study the structure of materials.
Nnanotechnology positions are likely to overlap with careers in condensed matter physics. Nanotech controls matter on an atomic scale and deals with structures smaller than 10-7 meters. In 2000, scientists at IBM reported the micro-fabrication of an electronic chip for high-speed data storage. Another example of nanotechnology is using carbon nanotubes (a form of carbon) to make nanomotors. IBM scientists recently reported using a combination of atomic force microscopy (high-resolution scanning probe microscopy) and MRI to get images of viruses with a resolution of better than 10-8 meters.
Careers in Geophysics
A career in geophysics involves applying the principles of physics to the earth sciences. In fact, geophysics is a major subfield of earth science along with geography, geology, and geodesy. Geodesy is the science that determines the precise size and shape of Earth, its motions in space, the movement of Earth’s crust and tide, and its gravitational field. A career in geodesy often overlaps with a geophysics career and certainly requires the study of geophysics.
A job in geophysics exploration and engineering might involve making measurements of elastic waves in Earth with a seismogram in order to find ore minerals and hydrocarbons. Geophysics jobs also include surveying for archaeologists and environmentalists. The most commonly used devices for this are magnetometers, electrical resistance meters, ground-penetrating radar, and electromagnetic conductivity meters.
There are geophysics jobs with the United States Geological Survey which employs 10, 000 scientists, technicians, and support staff. Its National Geomagnetism Program alone has 14 observatories that monitor the magnetic field of Earth. Earth’s magnetic field is constantly changing because of electric currents that move under ground, the Van Allen radiation belt, and solar wind. Geomagnetic storms can affect electric power grids, radio communication, satellites, and global-positioning systems, all of which can be tied back to geophysics careers.
There are also geophysics jobs in the atmospheric sciences of weather, atmospheric electricity, and the ionosphere. The study of weather, of course, included meteorology and climatology. Atmospheric electricity involves studying lightning, which occurs during thunderstorms, and the continual electrification in the air, which is best observed during fair weather. The ionosphere, the uppermost part of the atmosphere, is ionized by solar radiation and plays a large roll in atmospheric electricity.
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center runs the Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory with geophysics job opportunities in departments titled Geomagnetism, Topography and Surface Change, Crustal Deformation, Planetary Geology and Geophysics, Orbital-Rotational Interactions, and Space Geodesy.
Jobs in geophysics can also be found in hydrology, physical oceanography, and glaciology. Hydrology is the study of the water cycle and water resources. Physical oceanography studies the temperature, salinity, density of oceans, as well as tides, currents, tsunamis, and surface waves. The other subfields of oceanography are labeled biological, chemical, and geological. Over 175 institutions worldwide, including the United States Geological Survey, participate in Global Land Ice Measurements from Space project.
Careers in Instrumentation & Measurement
The International Society of Automation, founded in 1945 as the Instrument Society of America, has over 30,000 members worldwide, many of whom have careers in instrumentation and measurement. Anything that involves measuring and controlling thermodynamic quantities like pressure and temperature, hydrodynamic quantities like flow and viscosity, radiation, electrical quantities like current and capacitance, and chemical composition and properties could be considered a physics related job in measurement. Instrumentation engineers typically have jobs in chemical or manufacturing plants with automated processes. Examples of measurement instrumentation are chronographs, interferometers for measuring length, tachometers, mass spectrometers, tribometers for measuring friction on a surface, dynamometers for measuring torque, oscilloscopes, magnetometers, actinometers for measuring the heating power of radiation, calorimeters, dilatometers for measuring thermal expansion, Thiele tubes for measuring melting points, spectroscopes, scanning electron microscopes, seismometers, cloud and bubble chambers, gas chromatographs, and electrocardiograph and tomographs for medical purposes. Thus, people who work with these tools are said to have careers in instrumentation.
Inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization at around 2000 BCE held the first measurement and instrumentation jobs. They worked with a system of weights made of chert (1.4 grams, 2.8 grams, 5.6 grams up to 1.4 kilograms) and had rulers with 1.704 mm divisions.
The science of measurement is called metrology. Metrology careers usually require international cooperation. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures is located in Sèvres, France, and is one of three organizations established to maintain the International System of Units. An organization concerned with a wide range of measurement problems from food safety to environmental pollution is the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, located in Geel, Belgium.
There are many job opportunities at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), formerly called the National Bureau of Standards. The NIST employs about 2,900 scientists, engineers, technicians, and supports 1,800 guest researchers, many of whom have careers in instrumentation or jobs in measurement. NIST has laboratories and job opportunities in physics, information technology, chemical science and technology, electronics and electrical engineering, materials science and engineering, manufacturing engineering, and building and fire research. The NIST also has a nationwide network of centers (Hollings Manufacturing Extension Partnership) to assist small manufacturers and has a grant program to promote innovative but high-risk technologies.
Careers in Materials
A science career in materials could mean anything since materials are important in all consumer products and all manufacturing. Jobs in electrical, mechanical, environmental, chemical, and civil engineering require an understanding of materials. Materials themselves include ceramics, polymers, composites, bio-materials, and electronic materials. A career in materials physics would involve synthesizing the different physical sciences: chemistry, continuum physics, and condensed matter physics. Most jobs in condensed matter physics are in solid-state physics and most jobs in continuum physics are in solid mechanics.
The American Physical Society (APS) has 14 separate units, with their own websites. Jobs in materials physics and condensed matter physics are found in separate divisions. A career in materials physics would involve applying condensed matter concepts to complex and multiphase media. Jobs in materials physics are really jobs in condensed matter physics applied to materials that are of interest to manufactures.
If you want a career in pure quantum mechanics, the study of magnetic materials is for you. Magnetism is caused by the spin and the detailed quantum state of electrons in solids and has no classical counterpart and has many potential applications. There are career opportunities created by tunneling magnetoresistance, nanostructured single domain materials, the need of high-density data storage, and progress in MRI diagnostics.
There are fundamental problems and job opportunities in the study of hydrogen because the presence of hydrogen modifies the properties of materials and because of the need of lightweight materials for hydrogen storage. Hydrogen is relevant for the creation of high vacuums because it is used for the outgassing of materials.
Careers in soft matter involves studying physical states that are easily deformed such as liquid crystals, colloids, polymers, foams, gels, granular materials, and biological membranes. Research jobs in this area will tackle the unpredictable behaviors of soft matter, which arise because soft matter self-organizes itself into physical structures that are larger than an arrangement of atoms and molecules, but smaller than the overall scale of the material. There are many jobs for physicists studying packaging materials, foams and adhesives, detergents and cosmetics, paints, food additives, lubricants, and fuel additives. A career in soft matter research is for someone who prefers classical physics to quantum physics and is interested in physical chemistry and complex systems analysis.
Careers in (Applied) Mathematics
A career in mathematics for a physicist would obviously be in applied mathematics, not pure mathematics. A job in applied mathematics might mean working in statistics, operations research, or computer science. A physicist interested in a career in operations research might be aiming for a successful business career as an executive. This type of job uses methods such as mathematical modeling and algorithms to help management to optimize profits, assembly line performance, crop yield, bandwidth, and transaction costs. A technology firm might offer jobs to math, physics, engineering, and computer science students to conceive new trading ideas and devise the simulations needed to test them. A job in statistics might involve describing, predicting, and collecting data. In would not involve mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
A huge number of mathematics jobs are in computer science, which is the study of information and computation on a theoretical and practical level. There are careers to be made in computer graphics, computational complexity theory, creating new programs, programming language theory, and human-computer interactions. Jobs in computer programming apply specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems.
Anyone pursuing a career in the applied science of engineering might be considered a mathematician. Jobs in biomedical instrumentation, the behavior and control of fluids on a microscale, multiphase systems, photonics, quantum optical processes in semiconductors, and robotics can all require skill and knowledge in mathematics. The semiconductor industry continuously giving jobs to physicists who can help reduce the size of integrated circuits.
Another source of jobs for a mathematically minded physicist is in high-end optical imaging instruments, like ground-based telescopes, long-range surveillance cameras and free-space optical communication systems. The resolution of images is limited by optical aberrations induced by atmospheric turbulence, misalignment, vibrations, and heat generation. There are many career opportunities in adaptive optics, which is a technology used to improve the performance of optical systems by reducing the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion. Jobs in adaptive optics requires measuring the distortions in a wavefront and compensating for them with a spatial phase modulator such as a deformable mirror or liquid crystal array. This is not the same as active optics, which works on a longer timescale to correct the primary mirror geometry itself and is also a source of jobs.
Careers in Medical Physics
There are many jobs for medical physicists in medical schools, hospitals, and clinics. Many medical physicists make a career as a consultant to hospitals and other users of their services. Such careers begin with a MS or PhD in physics, medical physics, or radiation biology. A job in medical physics is allied with, but not the same as, a job in medical electronics or bioengineering. Medical physics is the application of physics to medicine, but most jobs involve either diagnostic radiology or radiation therapy. Most medical physicists receive training through a residency traineeship or postdoctoral program of one or two years at a hospital. Their careers begin in earnest when they pass a certification examination given by the American Board of Radiology or the American Board of Medical Physics. The certification examinations are given in four subfields: therapeutic radiological physics, diagnostic radiological physics, medical nuclear physics, and medical health physics.
Approximately 85% of the jobs in medical physics involves some form of therapy, 10% are in diagnostic imaging, and 5% in nuclear medicine. A career in medical health physics is dedicated to the safe use of X-rays, gamma rays, electron and neutron beams, and sealed radionuclide sources. A job in health physics also includes conducting radiation surveys with the appropriate instrumentation. Only New York, Texas, Florida, and Hawaii require licensure to qualify for a medical physicist job at a hospital. The rest have no requirements or require only registration.
A job in diagnostic imaging requires helping improve the effectiveness of mammography, computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound imaging, positron emission tomography, fluoroscopy, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry to measure bone density, and angiography. A job in radiation therapy means measuring and characterizing radiation, determining delivered dose, establishing adequate protocols to ensure accurate patient dosimetry, and collaborating with radiation oncologists to design treatment plans, and monitoring equipment and procedures to insure that cancer patients receive the prescribed dose of radiation to the correct location. A career in medical nuclear physics involves the therapeutic and diagnostic of radionuclides, not however, sealed sources of gamma rays, which fall under radiation therapy.
Many jobs involve teaching future medical physicists, resident physicians, medical students, and technologists who operate the various types of equipment used to perform diagnosis and treatment.

Careers in Metrology (scientific study of measurement)
There are many career opportunities for physicists interested in metrology at laboratories, mostly run by governments, that are dedicated to the science of measurement. Organizations with many jobs are the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and Boulder, Colorado; the Institute of Reference Materials and Measurement (IRMM) in Geel, Belgium; the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Sèvres, France; the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in London, England; the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in Washington, DC. BIPM is the organization that maintains the International System of Units. France’s leadership in metrology began with the French Revolution and its political goal of harmonizing units all over France for all of its people. Basing the meter on the distance from the equator to the North Pole and basing the kilogram on the mass of water had ideological and political undercurrents.
A career in industrial metrology would involve applying metrology to manufacturing and other processes and ensuring the suitability of measuring instrumentation. A career in legal metrology concerns the regulatory requirements of measurements and measuring instruments for the protection of health, public safety, the environment, and the protection of consumers.
A career in fundamental metrology might involve establishing new units, measurement methods, standards, and traceability protocols. Traceability is a core concept in metrology because it relates measurements to national and international standards. The level of traceability determines whether the result of a measurement can be compared to other measurements. A job in metrology means understanding traceability, accuracy, precision, systematic bias, and the evaluation of measurement uncertainty. Correct measurements are essential to commerce, but most individuals specializing in metrology have jobs as technicians.
Professional physicists with advanced degrees and experience are needed to get jobs operating equipment in many laboratories. Such careers might be considered careers in metrology. There are metrology jobs requiring experience in operation of particle accelerators, such as cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and betatrons. There are also jobs in x-ray fluorescence imaging and microscopy and X-ray spectroscopy. Some job specifications require knowing about a range of high-resolution astronomical imaging techniques, such as adaptive optics, precision positioning systems, and magnetically induced circular dichroism.
Careers in Nanotechnology
Careers in nanotechnology generally equate to careers in condensed matter physics because the theme is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. There are many career opportunities arising from nanotech’s potential of creating new materials and devices with applications in medicine, energy production, and electronics. A job in DNA nanotechnology would mean using a bottom-up approach to designing new structures, like DNA nanotubes. Other jobs require using conventional solid-state technologies to create 100 nm or smaller sized devices for giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives, thin film deposition techniques, micro-electro-mechanical systems, nanolithography, and transmission electron microscopy. A job in molecular electronics would mean trying to develop molecules with useful electronic properties.
There might also be career opportunities in connection with the concern about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials behave differently than other similarly-sized particles. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Chemicals Committee has established the Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials to address this issue and to study the practices of OECD member countries in regards to nanomaterial safety.
A career in nanotechnology would mean working with fullerenes or inorganic nanoparticles. Fullerenes are a class of allotropes of carbon that can be thought of as sheets rolled into tubes or spheres. There are jobs studying the uses of fullerenes in binding antibiotics to the structure of resistant bacteria, targeting certain types of cancer cells, and light-activated antimicrobial agents.
There are nanoparticles made of metals, semiconductors, or oxides and many jobs involved studying their mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical properties. Nanoparticles have been used as semiconductors that have properties between those of bulk semiconductors and discrete molecules. Nanotechnology means the creation of jobs researching the bridge between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures. A job researching the properties of colloids and ceramics would involve nanotechnology. There are careers to be made researching size-dependent properties such as quantum confinement in semiconductor particles, surface plasmon resonance in some metal particles, and super-paramagnetism in magnetic materials.
Professor, Researcher, Teacher: Physics Jobs in Academia
High School Teaching Positions
Many physics teachers in high schools in the United States have bachelor degrees in chemistry or a science other than physics. This means there is a need for high school teachers with undergraduate degrees in physics. While there is a considerable amount of job security at private high schools, public high schools in most states have tenure laws that protect teachers from being terminated without just cause. Depending on experience and responsibilities, the salaries of high school teachers can even exceed the salaries of college instructors.
Community College & Postsecondary Jobs
Junior colleges or two-year post-secondary schools need physics teachers but will generally require a master’s degree or a doctorate in physics. Not to be forgotten are specialized technical or trade schools. The growing video game industry, for example, needs game designers and a game designer needs to know mechanics, which is a branch of physics.
Professor of Physics – Research & Teaching Careers
The competition for teaching positions at four-year colleges is high and a doctorate in physics is necessary. At universities with graduate schools, assistant professors are expected to do research and publish. This is an entry-level position and is the first step to becoming an associate professor or professor.
Tenure is well-earned at a major university and typically requires publications in peer-reviewed journals. There are also openings for lecturers and instructors who have only teaching responsibilities. Lectureships are not usually considered tenure-track positions.

Engineering Internships and Jobs for Students
Internships are like apprenticeships since they are temporary positions that emphasize on-the-job training. Many firms will offer competitive pay and government agencies will typically give stipends. Completing a successful engineering internship with any firm can lead to a job offer from that firm in addition to improving skills and knowledge.
Many firms have websites that describe their intern programs and there are websites that list available internships. Career fairs held at colleges are also sources of information about engineering internships.
Internships in various branches of engineering can be found in many industries, such as the following:
	•	Aerospace
	•	Automotive
	•	Aviation
	•	Chemicals
	•	Communications and networking
	•	Computers
	•	Construction
	•	Consulting
	•	Design
	•	Electronics
	•	Energy
	•	Environment
	•	Imaging
	•	Information technology
	•	Manufacturing
	•	Navigation
	•	Packaging
	•	Scientific Research
	•	Software Development
	•	Transportation

Entry-level Physics and Engineering Jobs
There are a number of opportunities for employment for individuals with undergraduate degrees in physics or engineering disciples who have not yet made the decision to pursue an advanced degree. Such positions can lead to a variety of highly rewarding managerial and executive careers.
The financial sector, for example, considers physics majors for entry-level positions in quantitative research and developing models for financial analysis. In general, positions in computer programming will be given to physics majors if the programs being developed require technical knowledge in some area of physics.
Medical physics is a large field that includes radiation safety officers and physicists who calculate radiation doses for cancer treatment. Medical physicists also calibrate and test equipment for ultrasound, x-ray, magnetic resonance, and radioisotope imaging.
Physicists also work in the manufacturing and marketing of medical diagnostic and therapeutic equipment, as well as in high tech industries such as aerospace, telecommunications, semiconductors, computer manufacturing, and nuclear energy.
Government agencies involved in national security and research have a need for individuals with a physics background too.